Architectural Technologies Studies

Abstract Aims: Architectural design is a highly complex cognitive process that emerges from the interaction of environmental stimuli, individual experiences, and the functional dynamics of the human nervous system. The generation of innovative architectural solutions requires continuous interaction between divergent thinking, convergent thinking, and spatial visualization abilities. While numerous theoretical models have attempted to explain the nature of design thinking, the underlying neural mechanisms responsible for creativity and decision-making in architectural design remain insufficiently understood. Recent advances in cognitive neuroscience have provided new opportunities to explore the neural foundations of creativity through neuroimaging techniques and brain-network analyses. This study aims to investigate the relationship between brain cognitive networks and creativity in the architectural design process and to identify the neural systems involved in idea generation, evaluation, and spatial simulation. By integrating findings from neuroscience and architectural design research, the study seeks to develop a comprehensive conceptual framework that explains how creativity emerges through interactions among large-scale brain networks.
Materials & Methods: This study employed a systematic review methodology combined with conceptual modeling. Relevant literature published between 2020 and 2025 in the fields of cognitive neuroscience, neuroarchitecture, creativity research, and design cognition was reviewed and analyzed. Particular attention was given to studies utilizing electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate neural activity during creative thinking and design-related tasks. The selected studies were examined to identify recurring neural patterns associated with architectural creativity and design cognition. Findings from the reviewed literature were synthesized into an integrated conceptual model describing the interaction among major cognitive networks during different stages of the architectural design process. The analysis focused on the Default Mode Network (DMN), Executive Control Network (ECN), hippocampal spatial simulation systems, and other brain regions associated with memory retrieval, conceptual integration, and creative problem-solving.
Findings: The review revealed that architectural design creativity is not localized within a single brain region but rather emerges from the dynamic interaction of multiple large-scale neural networks. Three principal systems were consistently identified across the literature. The first is the Default Mode Network (DMN), which supports idea generation, imagination, memory retrieval, and divergent thinking. The second is the Executive Control Network (ECN), which is responsible for evaluating, refining, and selecting design alternatives through convergent thinking processes. The third is the spatial simulation system centered around the hippocampus, which enables designers to mentally construct, manipulate, and evaluate spatial configurations. Furthermore, the findings highlight the critical role of the Middle Temporal Gyrus (MTG) and hippocampal structures in generating innovative and contextually appropriate architectural concepts. Based on these findings, a five-stage architectural design model was developed, illustrating how creative outputs emerge through cyclical interactions among generation, evaluation, and simulation processes. The model suggests that successful architectural creativity depends on maintaining a balance between spontaneous idea production and analytical assessment while continuously engaging spatial cognitive mechanisms.
Conclusion: This study provides a neuroscience-based perspective on architectural creativity by demonstrating that design processes emerge from coordinated interactions among multiple cognitive networks rather than isolated mental functions. The proposed conceptual framework indicates that architectural design is fundamentally a cyclical system involving idea generation, evaluation, and spatial simulation, all supported by interconnected neural structures. The findings contribute to bridging the gap between traditional design theories and contemporary cognitive neuroscience by offering a biologically grounded explanation of creative architectural thinking. Moreover, the study highlights the importance of the Default Mode Network, Executive Control Network, hippocampus, and Middle Temporal Gyrus in facilitating creative performance during design activities. These insights may support the development of neuroscience-informed design methodologies, evidence-based architectural education, and future research exploring the neural foundations of creativity. Ultimately, the integration of cognitive neuroscience and architecture provides new opportunities for understanding, enhancing, and teaching design creativity through scientifically informed approaches.

Abstract Aims: Reducing energy demand and improving energy management in buildings have become major concerns in contemporary architectural and environmental research. Since windows constitute one of the most critical components of the building envelope in terms of heat transfer, considerable attention has been directed toward developing advanced glazing technologies to enhance thermal performance and reduce energy consumption. Among these technologies, multi-glazed windows and phase change materials (PCMs) have emerged as promising solutions for improving building energy efficiency. Polymer-based PCMs, in particular, have attracted increasing interest because of their high thermal stability and solid-to-solid phase transition characteristics, making them suitable for thermal energy storage (TES) applications. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of phase change materials in optimizing the thermal performance of double- and triple-glazed window systems and to evaluate their effectiveness in reducing energy consumption under cold climatic conditions. The research focuses on a residential living room located in Tabriz, Iran, and seeks to identify the most efficient glazing configuration in terms of thermal energy management.
Materials & Methods: This study employed a simulation-based approach to assess the thermal performance of various glazing systems. A living room in a residential building located in the cold climate of Tabriz was selected as the case study. Several types of double- and triple-glazed windows with different inter-pane gas fillings were modeled and compared. In addition, polymer-based phase change materials were incorporated into selected glazing configurations to evaluate their contribution to thermal energy storage and indoor temperature regulation. Thermal simulations were conducted using an energy-analysis plugin within a digital building modeling environment. The window-to-wall ratio (WWR) was fixed at 0.6, while the material properties of the roof, walls, and floor were kept constant throughout all simulation scenarios to ensure reliable comparisons. The analyses focused on heat transfer behavior, energy demand, and the thermal efficiency of different glazing arrangements under winter climatic conditions. Comparative evaluations were then performed to determine the most effective combination of glazing layers, gas fillings, and PCM integration for minimizing energy consumption.
Findings: The simulation results indicate that both glazing configuration and material selection significantly influence the thermal performance of residential windows. The incorporation of phase change materials improved thermal energy storage capacity and contributed to more stable indoor thermal conditions. However, the results also revealed that increasing the number of glazing layers does not necessarily lead to a proportional increase in thermal resistance or energy savings. In several cases, double-glazed systems equipped with more efficient coatings and optimized gas fillings performed better than certain triple-glazed alternatives. The effectiveness of the glazing systems was found to depend not only on the number of panes but also on the overall thermal properties of the window assembly. PCM-enhanced glazing systems demonstrated improved energy management capabilities by reducing heat loss and moderating temperature fluctuations within the interior space. These findings highlight the importance of considering the combined effects of glazing technology, gas type, and thermal storage materials rather than relying solely on the number of glazing layers when designing energy-efficient window systems.
Conclusion: The findings of this research demonstrate that optimizing window performance requires a comprehensive evaluation of glazing characteristics rather than simply increasing the number of panes. Although triple-glazed windows are generally assumed to provide superior thermal insulation, the results show that certain double-glazed systems with advanced coatings and appropriate thermal properties can achieve comparable or even better energy performance. Furthermore, the integration of polymer-based phase change materials enhances the thermal behavior of glazing systems by increasing energy storage capacity and improving indoor thermal stability. Therefore, PCM-based glazing technologies represent a promising strategy for reducing energy consumption and improving thermal comfort in residential buildings located in cold climates. The study underscores the necessity of performance-based design approaches in selecting window systems and highlights the potential of phase change materials as an effective component of sustainable and energy-efficient building envelopes.

Abstract Aims: The middle-aged population in Iran is steadily increasing, and depression has emerged as one of the most prevalent psychological challenges affecting this age group. Previous studies have reported depression prevalence rates ranging from 25% to 50% among middle-aged adults. In recent years, biophilic architecture, which emphasizes the integration of natural elements into the built environment and strengthens the human–nature connection, has gained attention as a potential strategy for improving psychological well-being. Despite growing evidence regarding the positive effects of nature-based design on mental health, limited research has specifically investigated its influence on depressive symptoms among middle-aged residents in residential environments. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the relationship between biophilic architectural features and the reduction of depressive symptoms among middle-aged residents and to identify the most influential biophilic components contributing to mental well-being.
Materials & Methods: This applied study was conducted using a descriptive-survey design. The statistical population consisted of middle-aged residents aged 45–65 years living in the Javan and Rose residential complexes in Tehran, Iran. A purposive sample of 20 participants was selected, including 10 residents from each residential complex. Data collection was carried out using two instruments: the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) for assessing depressive symptoms and a researcher-developed biophilic architecture questionnaire consisting of 15 items rated on a five-point Likert scale. The questionnaire evaluated residents’ access to and perception of various biophilic design elements within their residential environment. Descriptive statistical techniques, including means, frequencies, tables, and graphical analyses, were employed to analyze the collected data and compare the two residential complexes.
Findings: The findings revealed a significant inverse relationship between access to biophilic architectural elements and the severity of depressive symptoms among middle-aged residents. The Javan Residential Complex demonstrated a higher average level of access to biophilic features (Mean = 3.34 out of 5) and a considerably lower average depression score (Mean = 17.2) compared with the Rose Residential Complex, which showed a lower mean biophilic score (Mean = 1.67 out of 5) and a substantially higher average depression score (Mean = 42.7). Among the examined biophilic components, “plants and green spaces” achieved the highest effectiveness in reducing depressive symptoms (Mean = 4.13), followed by “natural lighting” (Mean = 3.80). These findings suggest that residential environments characterized by greater exposure to natural elements provide more favorable psychological conditions and may contribute to reduced levels of depression among residents. The results further indicate that not all biophilic components contribute equally, with vegetation and daylight emerging as the most influential factors.
Conclusion: The results of this study support the growing body of evidence highlighting the positive role of biophilic architecture in promoting mental health and psychological well-being. The observed inverse relationship between biophilic design features and depressive symptoms suggests that integrating natural elements into residential environments can serve as an effective, non-pharmacological, and cost-efficient approach to reducing depression among middle-aged adults. In particular, the presence of green spaces and access to natural daylight appear to play critical roles in improving residents’ emotional well-being and reducing psychological distress. Therefore, architects, urban designers, and housing policymakers should prioritize these biophilic components when designing and renovating residential complexes. By incorporating nature-based design principles into residential environments, it may be possible to enhance quality of life, foster healthier living conditions, and contribute to the prevention and mitigation of depression among middle-aged populations.

Abstract Aims: Housing serves as the most fundamental living environment for humans, playing a decisive role in ensuring the physical, mental, and social health of residents. In recent years, the World Health Organization has published the WHO Housing and Health Guidelines (2018), providing a comprehensive framework to elucidate the relationship between housing quality and health outcomes. This document introduces housing not merely as a physical commodity but as a structural determinant within the public health system. The primary aim of this study is to extract the fundamental health concepts embedded in this guideline and reinterpret them in relation to architectural structure and principles. The core objective is to shift the discourse of health from the level of mere hygienic recommendations to the level of spatial organization logic, physical structure, environmental qualities, and the overall architectural design system. Materials & Methods: This research employs qualitative content analysis with a thematic approach to systematically extract core health-related concepts embedded in the World Health Organization’s Housing and Health Guidelines (2018). The guideline serves as the primary data source. Units of analysis include statements, paragraphs, and sections that directly or implicitly address the relationship between built environment quality and human health. The analysis encompasses the entire document, with a focus on topics such as indoor air quality, natural lighting, humidity, safety, crowding, access to open spaces, and spatial justice. The process was structured in four stages: open coding to identify initial concepts without architectural preconceptions; axial clustering to form major categories; reinterpretation of these categories in relation to architectural principles (spatial organization, environmental quality, climatic logic, physical safety, and spatial justice); and critical reflection to bridge policy language with design logic. Findings: Findings reveal that many of the key concepts articulated in the WHO guideline have deep roots in foundational architectural principles, including natural lighting, natural ventilation, spatial hierarchy, human scale, physical safety, and spatial justice. Over 80% of the health-related content in the document directly pertains to built environment decisions and physical attributes. Nevertheless, this intrinsic connection has not been systematically redefined or operationalized within the processes of architectural design and policy-making. The extracted concepts—such as indoor air quality, thermal comfort, crowding, structural safety, and equitable access to nature—demonstrate clear parallels with architectural strategies, yet remain largely confined to technical standards rather than integrated as core design drivers. Conclusion: The findings of this study suggest that the concept of “healthy housing” should be fundamentally re-evaluated and repositioned within contemporary architectural discourse. Rather than being understood solely as a set of hygienic standards, technical requirements, or environmental performance indicators, healthy housing should be recognized as a comprehensive and multidimensional design framework that informs both architectural theory and practice. Such a perspective emphasizes the integration of health-related principles into the core components of architectural design, including spatial organization, physical form, environmental quality, functionality, and design ideology.
By embedding considerations of physical, psychological, and social well-being into the design process, architecture can move beyond its traditional role of providing shelter and become an active contributor to public health promotion and disease prevention. This approach highlights the interconnected nature of the built environment and human health, demonstrating that architectural decisions can significantly influence residents’ quality of life, behavior, comfort, and overall well-being. Furthermore, the proposed reinterpretation helps bridge the longstanding divide between public health research and architectural theory, encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration and knowledge exchange. Ultimately, healthy housing should be viewed as an integrated design paradigm in which health is not an external outcome but a fundamental principle embedded within the spatial, social, and environmental foundations of residential architecture.

Abstract Aims: The educational environment and its architectural characteristics play a fundamental role in shaping students’ psychological experiences and academic performance. Among environmental factors, lighting conditions are considered one of the most influential elements affecting human behavior, mood, concentration, and mental well-being. Learning is often accompanied by stress, particularly during examination periods, and excessive stress can negatively affect students’ health, cognitive functioning, and academic achievement. Consequently, identifying environmental strategies that can mitigate stress in educational settings has become an important area of research within environmental psychology and educational design. This study aims to investigate the relationship between light intensity and students’ stress levels in educational environments. Specifically, it seeks to determine whether appropriate lighting conditions can contribute to stress reduction among students during examination sessions and provide evidence-based recommendations for the design of healthier educational spaces.
Materials & Methods: This research employed a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The theoretical foundations and research rationale were established through an extensive review of literature and library-based studies related to environmental psychology, educational environments, and lighting design. The empirical phase of the study focused on measuring students’ stress levels during examination sessions. Stress levels were assessed using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) questionnaire, a widely recognized psychological assessment instrument. Environmental light intensity was measured using a YK-10LX digital lux meter to ensure accurate quantification of lighting conditions within the educational setting. Data collection was conducted under real examination conditions to capture authentic stress responses. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS statistical software. Statistical procedures were applied to examine the relationship between measured light intensity and students’ reported stress levels and to determine the significance of this relationship.
Findings: The results of the study revealed a significant relationship between environmental light intensity and students’ stress levels. Variations in lighting conditions were associated with measurable differences in psychological responses during examination sessions. The findings indicate that light intensity can influence students’ emotional state and perceived stress, suggesting that lighting is not merely a functional requirement but also an important environmental factor affecting mental well-being. Appropriate lighting levels were associated with lower stress scores and improved psychological comfort, whereas inadequate lighting conditions were linked to elevated stress responses. These results support previous findings in environmental psychology that emphasize the importance of sensory and environmental factors in shaping human emotions and behaviors. The study demonstrates that lighting design can serve as a practical intervention for improving educational environments and promoting students’ psychological health.
Conclusion: The findings of this research confirm that light intensity is a significant environmental variable influencing stress levels among students in educational settings. By optimizing lighting conditions, educational institutions can create environments that support psychological well-being, reduce examination-related stress, and potentially enhance academic performance. The study highlights the importance of integrating evidence-based lighting strategies into the design and management of educational facilities. The results can assist educational administrators in improving examination environments and provide architects and designers with valuable insights for creating healthier and more supportive learning spaces. Ultimately, attention to lighting quality should be considered an essential component of educational design aimed at promoting students’ mental health, comfort, and overall learning experience.

Abstract Problem and Objectives: In architectural education, studio-based courses constitute the main arena in which students learn to transform theoretical knowledge, technical competence, spatial perception, cultural understanding, and design judgment into architectural propositions. Although design studios in Iranian universities share the general mission of educating future architects, their structure, thematic sequence, supporting courses, technical orientation, and assessment patterns vary considerably. These differences are not merely administrative or quantitative; they express distinct educational philosophies regarding what an architect should know, how design ability should be formed, and how theory, culture, technology, and professional practice should be integrated within undergraduate education. This study examines the structure and content of studio-based architectural courses in three leading Iranian universities: the University of Tehran, Shahid Beheshti University, and Iran University of Science and Technology. Its objective is to clarify how each university organizes the gradual formation of design competence, how studio courses are connected to theoretical, historical, technical, and elective courses, and how these arrangements shape the educational identity of each school. The study also seeks to identify shared capacities, structural divergences, and transferable lessons that may contribute to the revision of architectural education in Iran.
Research Question: The central research question is as follows: how do the qualitative and quantitative differences in the organization and content of studio-based architectural courses in the three universities shape their educational approaches and affect the type of architect each program seeks to train? This question is addressed through several subsidiary concerns. First, the research asks how design studios are sequenced from introductory exercises to advanced architectural projects and final design work. Second, it investigates how theoretical courses support or remain separate from the design studio. Third, it examines whether each curriculum privileges conceptual and spatial thinking, social and contextual engagement, or technical and professional preparation. Finally, it asks whether the diversity among these programs represents a productive plurality of educational identities or whether the absence of an integrated framework may produce fragmentation in architectural knowledge, design culture, and competence.
Research Method: The research is qualitative, analytical, and comparative, while also using quantitative indicators to clarify curricular differences. It is based on documentary analysis of official undergraduate architectural curricula, approved course syllabi, semester-by-semester study plans, credit distribution tables, and publicly available educational information from the three universities. The data were extracted, categorized, and compared according to structural and content-based indicators. These indicators include the number and sequence of studio courses, the length of the program, prerequisites, the ratio between studio, theoretical, technical, and elective courses, the role of history and theory in relation to design, the place of Islamic and Iranian architectural studies, the depth of structural and construction-related education, attention to digital technologies, and the presence of interdisciplinary or context-oriented courses.
The comparative content analysis proceeded in four stages. First, the official design-studio sequence of each university was reconstructed to identify its pedagogical logic. Second, supporting theoretical and technical courses were mapped around the studio sequence to determine curricular integration. Third, qualitative interpretations were developed regarding the dominant educational orientation of each university. Fourth, the results were read diagnostically to reveal strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and gaps in each curriculum. To enhance validity, the analysis relied on formal and verifiable documents rather than anecdotal accounts. To strengthen reliability, data extraction, classification, and interpretation were organized around explicit comparative criteria. The research does not evaluate the actual quality of teaching, instructors’ personal methods, or students’ lived experience; rather, it focuses on the official structure and declared curricular logic of the programs.
Conclusion: The findings show that the three universities share a staged model of design education. In all three programs, students move from basic visual literacy, spatial perception, drawing, model-making, and elementary design exercises toward increasingly complex projects involving function, context, structure, environmental considerations, and professional documentation. Project-based learning and the studio format remain the central pedagogical framework, and each curriculum seeks to combine theoretical knowledge with practical design experience. Nevertheless, deeper analysis reveals substantial differences in educational orientation.
The University of Tehran presents a coherent and hierarchical studio structure that emphasizes spatial understanding, conceptual development, aesthetic judgment, historical awareness, and critical thinking. Its design education moves from visual and formal foundations toward broader questions of form, function, culture, urban context, and architectural meaning. In this model, the architect is trained as a reflective designer capable of translating analytical and cultural understanding into spatial propositions. Shahid Beheshti University, by contrast, gives greater prominence to socio-cultural contextualism, everyday life, historical fabrics, urban realities, environmental psychology, critical thinking, future studies, ergonomics, artificial intelligence, and other interdisciplinary fields. Its curriculum encourages students to approach design as an intervention within social, cultural, historical, and urban settings. The architect emerging from this model is expected to be context-sensitive, socially aware, and capable of engaging with the lived realities of place. Iran University of Science and Technology demonstrates the strongest technical and professional orientation. Its curriculum emphasizes construction systems, structures, building technology, quantity surveying, project management, digital tools, executive documents, and the transition from design idea to buildable project. In this model, the architect is trained as a technically competent professional who can coordinate design decisions with construction logic, standards, documentation, and implementation.
The study concludes that these differences can be valuable when they create intellectual and professional diversity within architectural education. However, when such diversity is not supported by a coherent national framework, it may lead to fragmentation between conceptual, contextual, and technical dimensions of architectural training. Therefore, the revision of architectural education in Iran should not erase institutional differences, but should establish a more integrated structure in which design studios, theoretical courses, technical knowledge, digital competence, cultural awareness, and professional preparation reinforce one another. A desirable curriculum would preserve the distinctive strengths of each school: the conceptual and critical depth of the University of Tehran, the contextual and interdisciplinary richness of Shahid Beheshti University, and the technical and executive rigor of Iran University of Science and Technology. At the same time, it should respond to Iran’s diverse climates, cultures, historical traditions, and contemporary professional demands. The future of architectural education in Iran depends on the ability to form architects who are not creative designers, contextual thinkers, or technical professionals in isolation, but integrated practitioners capable of linking meaning, place, technology, and construction within a responsible architectural vision.