Architectural Technologies Studies

Abstract Extended Abstract
Aims: In recent years, the construction industry has faced significant challenges such as rising costs, frequent project delays, and considerable resource waste issues that become even more critical in large and complex projects. To address these problems, researchers and project managers have increasingly turned to advanced technologies, particularly Building Information Modeling (BIM) and the Internet of Things (IoT). Numerous studies indicate that integrating these technologies can substantially enhance productivity, reduce costs, improve construction quality, and enable more accurate project management. Building Information Modeling (BIM), as a digital and data-driven approach, provides comprehensive tools for designing, analyzing, simulating, and managing the entire lifecycle of a project. By generating detailed data-rich 3D models, BIM enables better prediction and analysis of clashes, improved resource allocation, optimized scheduling, and minimized construction errors. On the other hand, the Internet of Things (IoT), through the use of sensors, smart devices, and communication networks, delivers real-time and precise data regarding the actual conditions of the project including environmental states, equipment performance, and workforce activity. When these two technologies are combined, a smart ecosystem is created, allowing automated, data-driven monitoring, control, and decision-making within construction projects. Despite their benefits, the integration of BIM and IoT comes with several challenges. One of the most significant barriers is data integration, due to diverse data sources, varying standards, and the complexity of large data volumes, all of which require sophisticated information management mechanisms. Additionally, concerns about cybersecurity, high initial implementation costs, and the need for specialized workforce training pose further obstacles to wide-scale adoption. Therefore, further research is essential to provide accurate and practical solutions. The primary aim of this study is to investigate how the integration of BIM and IoT can enhance productivity and optimize construction project performance. This research examines the benefits, challenges, and implementation strategies of these technologies and proposes a practical framework for improving construction management. The findings can serve as a valuable resource for project managers, engineers, consultants, and researchers, enabling more informed decision-making, more efficient project execution, and the development of innovative approaches in construction management.
Materials & Methods: This applied analytical research, designed with a descriptive–analytical approach, aims to examine the effects of integrating Building Information Modeling (BIM) and the Internet of Things (IoT) on cost optimization, reduction of material waste, and improvement of productivity in construction projects in Iran. The study employs a mixed-methods design, with data collected through documentary sources, field surveys, digital monitoring tools, and quantitative–qualitative analyses. The statistical population consisted of medium and large construction projects in Iran utilizing at least one of the technologies, BIM or IoT. Five real projects in Tabriz and Tehran were purposefully selected, from which data on scheduling, material consumption, execution errors, and IoT sensor information were gathered. Data collection followed four main procedures: field observations, extraction of BIM data, real-time IoT sensing, and conducting interviews and questionnaires with project managers and engineers. This combination enabled a precise assessment of the technologies’ impact on project quality, efficiency, and cost. Quantitative data were analyzed using Excel and SPSS, focusing on indicators such as material waste, schedule deviations, actual project costs, rework rates, and energy consumption. Qualitative data obtained from semi-structured interviews were analyzed through thematic analysis, leading to categories such as design sustainability, user–space interaction, architectural innovation, and managerial impacts of digital technologies. To ensure validity, triangulation was applied by comparing quantitative data with field observations, technical documents, and expert insights. Findings revealed that BIM–IoT integration can reduce material waste by 12%, energy consumption by 16.7%, and execution costs by 15%. Improved team coordination, reduced rework, and enhanced spatial quality also emerged as major benefits.
Finally, a conceptual framework for smart project management was developed, incorporating three core components:
(1) BIM as a tool for simulation and design accuracy;
(2) IoT as a system for real-time monitoring of energy and material usage;
(3) The integrated BIM–IoT ecosystem as a basis for intelligent decision-making to enhance quality, optimize resources, and reduce costs in Iranian construction projects.
Findings: The findings of this study examine the impact of modern technologies such as BIM and IoT on the performance of architectural and construction projects in Iran. Both quantitative and qualitative results demonstrate that these technologies significantly influence four major dimensions: energy optimization, spatial quality, economic efficiency, and sustainable design. In terms of energy optimization, quantitative analysis revealed that the use of BIM and IoT reduced average energy consumption from 210 to 175 kWh/m², representing a 16.7% savings. Qualitative data further indicated that project managers attribute this improvement to enhanced performance of energy systems and reduced energy waste. These results highlight the strong predictive effect of smart technologies on energy management. Regarding spatial quality and user satisfaction, BIM-based projects reported a remarkable improvement, with satisfaction levels rising from 2.8 in traditional projects to 4.1 in smart projects on a five-point Likert scale. Interview insights show that collaborative design, 3D visualization, and interactive modeling through BIM played a critical role in enhancing users’ spatial experiences and engagement. In the economic efficiency dimension, the adoption of digital technologies led to a reduction in rework costs from 120 million rials to 102 million rials, resulting in 15% savings. A significant positive correlation (r = 0.61) between BIM implementation and cost reduction suggests that resource management in smart projects is more precise and effective. These technologies therefore serve as predictive tools for budget planning and financial risk reduction. In terms of innovation and sustainability, the study found that modern technologies improved environmental sustainability indicators by 40%. These indicators include ventilation (12%), daylight performance (9%), water consumption reduction (7%), and construction waste reduction (12%). Qualitative findings further emphasize that BIM and IoT not only enhance sustainable design processes but also foster innovation in creating intelligent and environmentally adaptive spaces. Overall, the results indicate that integrating digital technologies into architectural projects in Iran can substantially reduce energy consumption, enhance spatial quality, lower operational costs, and improve sustainability performance. Statistical analyses such as t-tests, Pearson correlations, and confirmatory factor analysis validate these findings and confirm the predictive potential of these technologies in improving future project outcomes.
Conclusion: The main objective of this research is to examine the impact of modern technologies particularly Building Information Modeling (BIM) and the Internet of Things (IoT) on optimizing the design, execution, and management processes of architectural projects in Iran. The findings reveal that integrating these technologies significantly enhances project quality, reduces costs, improves managerial accuracy, and strengthens sustainability indicators. In the design phase, BIM enables the simulation of various scenarios, prediction of building performance, and precise resource planning. By providing detailed three-dimensional models and pre-construction analyses, BIM substantially reduces design errors. Meanwhile, IoT collects real-time data on building performance, energy consumption, ventilation, and heating/cooling systems, allowing intelligent automated management. The combination of both technologies leads to reduced energy consumption, controlled operation of mechanical systems, and minimized resource waste. Regarding spatial quality, the use of digital technologies improves user satisfaction with architectural spaces. Data gathered through IoT and analyzed within BIM enhances daylighting, natural ventilation, and spatial accessibility, reinforcing user-centered design. This results in improved spatial experience, fewer execution issues, and better alignment of design outcomes with real user needs. Economically, the integration of BIM and IoT reduces rework costs, design revisions, and on-site execution errors. Although initial implementation may be costly, long-term savings in energy, materials, and resource management ultimately compensate for the investment. More accurate estimation of materials and improved cost prediction also reduce financial risks during project delivery. From a sustainability perspective, the findings indicate that these technologies positively influence key environmental indicators such as natural ventilation, optimal daylighting, reduced construction waste, and lower water consumption. Field observations and expert reviews further validate the scientific and practical credibility of these results. In the limitations section, the study acknowledges methodological and practical challenges, including limited field samples, reliance on simulated data rather than real project data, insufficient advanced statistical analyses, lack of detailed modeling of costs and material usage, and the need for further refinement of the conceptual framework. Future studies are encouraged to utilize broader datasets, real project information, advanced analytical methods, and comprehensive cost modeling to develop an applicable framework for reducing material waste and improving construction management in real-world architectural projects in Iran.

Abstract Extended Abstract
Aims: Time and space function as foundational and enduring frameworks of architecture, where the perception of time shapes human-made environments and influences everyday life by revealing cosmic, mechanical, and digital temporal structures that redefine architectural space and emphasize its inherently transient nature. Architectural experience is temporally subjective, evolving through individual perception, lived experience, and changing interpretations over time, leading to multiplicity rather than fixity in spatial meaning. Since place is socially constructed, its reality remains fluid, contested, and open to redefinition, embodying layered and dynamic identities shaped by collective memory, event, and sociocultural interactions. Within this process, society - as the most dynamic and reciprocal agent of spatial formation - plays a central role in shaping, perceiving, and redefining architectural environments over time. The main purpose of present research is comparative review the ideas of thinkers on component of time and identifies common points in their theories.
Materials & Methods: This study employs a systematic literature-review approach, relying solely on library sources to collect, categorize, summarize, and interpret theoretical foundations and prior research, with an emphasis on identifying converging viewpoints among thinkers on the concept of time. Guided by initial assumptions and contextual knowledge, and through comparative interpretation of theoretical perspectives, the study seeks to answer its core main research question; that Therefore, the main questions here how do perception and feeling color our image of time?
Findings: Comparatively, Western rationalists and phenomenologists emphasized time as a condition of knowledge, existence, and historical consciousness, while figures such as Newton, Kant, Hegel, and Heidegger respectively framed time as absolute reality, transcendental intuition, the dialectical spirit of history, and the horizon for understanding Being. Across both traditions, epistemic consensus emerges that cognition and knowledge depend upon temporal structuring, insofar as sensory data, conceptual judgment, and even scientific reasoning are founded upon temporal organization, thereby confining human understanding to the domain of phenomena and rendering metaphysical knowledge beyond temporal form largely inaccessible.
Conclusion: Perception is a dynamic cognitive process through which sensory information is selectively organized, interpreted, and assigned meaning, transforming raw sensory input into structured understanding and enabling individuals to recognize relationships and meanings within their environment. Although perceptual processing often appears simultaneous with sensation, it is distinct in that it is not a direct or passive response to stimuli, but an active interpretative mechanism shaped by attention, memory, cognition, motivation, emotions, prior learning, expectations, decision-making, and demographic or psychological variables such as age and affective state. Consequently, temporal experience is inherently subjective and individuals perceive time through intervals between events. Now, Because perception is adaptive rather than innate, perceptual constancies—such as size, form, depth, and continuity—emerge through experiential calibration rather than direct sensory imprint. Time perception therefore intersects with experience, movement, human activity, spatial cognition, and social structures, shaping not only subjective awareness but also collective interpretations of spatial environments and transcends momentary function by embedding temporal continuity into form, allowing buildings to remain cognitively and culturally persistent across generations rather than being confined to the temporal demands of the present.

Abstract
Extended Abstract
Aims: In recent decades, sustainability has become a fundamental principle in various fields of development, particularly in urban planning and design. While the environmental and economic dimensions of sustainability are frequently emphasized, its social dimension is often overlooked or conceptually ambiguous. Social sustainability plays a crucial role in ensuring justice, cohesion, and long-term community well-being, and numerous studies have highlighted the importance of social participation, equity, and quality of life. Despite this, there is still no clear consensus regarding its precise definition or how it should be measured. Practically, different approaches have been proposed to promote and evaluate social sustainability through both quantitative and qualitative indicators. These indicators ranging from distributive justice and equitable access to services, to social cohesion and political participation reflect the multidimensional nature of the concept. The shift from basic, traditional indicators to context-based and composite ones demonstrates the transition from static analysis to a dynamic, forward-looking assessment of social sustainability in research and policy-making. Given the growing social challenges in urban environments, such as spatial inequality, social exclusion, and declining civic engagement, a deeper exploration of the theoretical and practical dimensions of social sustainability has become increasingly essential. This article aims to analyze the conceptual evolution of social sustainability, identify its key components, and examine their role in urban planning and design with an emphasis on social justice and local quality of life.
Materials & Methods: This study explores the concept and dimensions of social sustainability in urban spaces using a qualitative, descriptive–analytical approach. The research began with an extensive literature review based on credible Persian and English sources obtained from databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, MagIran, NoorMags, IranDoc, and Civilica. A total of 729 studies were initially identified, and after applying inclusion criteria direct relevance to social sustainability and urban design, scientific credibility, publication between 2000 and 2024, and the presence of applicable indicators 152 studies were selected for detailed analysis. Qualitative content analysis was conducted in three stages: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding, through which core concepts, measurement indicators, urban applications, historical developments, and practical case studies were extracted and organized into major dimensions including social justice, participation, quality of life, and social capital. This systematic process enabled the development of a comprehensive and practical framework for assessing and applying social sustainability in urban design. Clear selection criteria and transparent analytical procedures strengthened the reproducibility and reliability of the study, making its findings applicable to urban planning and policy-making.
Findings: Social sustainability, a key dimension of sustainable development, focuses on the interaction between social, economic, and environmental factors and is closely linked to equality, participation, social cohesion, and quality of life. Challenges include unclear definitions and difficulties in measuring intangible aspects like belonging and social cohesion. Achieving social sustainability requires attention to both quantitative indicators, such as access to public services, and qualitative ones, such as social capital and spatial justice. Theoretically, it emphasizes justice, cohesion, local identity, and citizens’ rights, providing a conceptual framework for analysis and planning. Practically, it involves creating interactive public spaces, developing accessible infrastructure, strengthening responsive institutions, fostering active citizen participation, and aligning policies with sustainable development goals. In urban design, equality, inclusivity, resilience, security, accessibility, social cohesion, and institutionalization are key, while modern indicators also address qualitative aspects like spatial justice, sense of place, social capital, civic participation, and mental well-being. This shift shows that social sustainability goes beyond material provision, requiring the reinforcement of sustainable social relationships, participatory governance, and fair access to urban opportunities and resources to ensure long-term quality of life, social capital, and urban justice.
Conclusion: This study shows that social sustainability in urban design is a multidimensional concept that cannot be achieved through quantitative indicators alone and requires attention to cultural, social, and quality-of-life aspects. Key factors include active citizen participation, spatial justice and equal access to public services, strengthening social capital through trust and social ties, and preserving cultural and local identity. The study’s innovation lies in offering an integrated, locally grounded framework suited to Iranian cultural values, collectivist traditions, and historical identity, making it practically applicable in Iranian cities. Despite challenges like spatial and economic inequality, lack of quality public spaces, and limited civic participation, opportunities exist through local institutions, cultural and historical values, and public awareness of social justice. Achieving social sustainability in Iran therefore requires a comprehensive approach combining policy-making, improving public spaces, empowering civil society, and preserving cultural identity.  

Abstract Extended Abstract
Aims:  In recent decades, contemporary architecture has increasingly shifted toward interdisciplinary and integrative approaches in response to profound cultural, social, and technological transformations. Within this context, the relationship between visual arts and architectural space has gained renewed attention and has moved beyond a purely decorative association. Painting, as one of the most fundamental and enduring branches of the visual arts, has long been intertwined with architecture; however, its role and position in contemporary architectural practice have undergone significant conceptual and functional changes. In many recent examples, painting is no longer treated as an applied or secondary element but rather as an integral part of spatial organization and architectural expression. Through visual components such as line, color, and form, painting has the potential to enrich users’ spatial experiences and contribute to the formation of spatial identity. When these elements are consciously and purposefully integrated into the design process, they can generate multiple layers of meaning, enhance spatial legibility, and strengthen sensory and perceptual engagement. From this perspective, space is no longer perceived merely as a physical container, but as a meaningful, experience-oriented environment capable of fostering deeper emotional and perceptual connections between people and their surroundings. Accordingly, painting can play an active role in shaping spatial quality and users’ lived experience.Despite these capacities, the role of painting in contemporary architecture has often been addressed in a fragmented and case-specific manner, and it has rarely been examined systematically as an influential factor in the design process and the production of spatial identity. This research gap highlights the need to reconsider the position of painting within architectural discourse and raises a central question: how can painting move beyond purely aesthetic functions to become an effective agent in shaping the spatial identity of contemporary architecture?
The aim of this study is to provide an analytical re-reading of the role of painting in contemporary architecture and to examine its impact on spatial experience and architectural identity. By focusing on selected contemporary architectural examples, the study analyzes how painterly elements are employed and explores their spatial and perceptual consequences. This approach seeks to offer a deeper understanding of the potential of painting within contemporary architectural design processes and to contribute to redefining the boundary between visual arts and spatial design.
Materials & Methods:  The present study adopts a qualitative–analytical approach with an interdisciplinary perspective to examine the role and significance of painting in contemporary architecture. The main objective of the research is to explain how painting influences visual qualities, spatial identity, and users’ perceptual experiences within architectural spaces. The qualitative–analytical framework enables an in-depth understanding of complex artistic concepts and the interaction between painting and architecture, while allowing for the integrated analysis of theoretical texts, images, and visual data. In the initial stage, the theoretical framework of the study was developed through a review of scholarly sources, specialized literature, and relevant theoretical perspectives. Subsequently, samples of contemporary architectural projects in which painting was employed as an influential element were selected based on specific criteria, including visual impact, the capacity to create spatial identity, and diversity in the application of painting. Research data were collected using multiple tools, such as documentary studies, case study analysis, semi-structured interviews with architects, interior designers, and art researchers, as well as visual content analysis of project images. Qualitative content analysis was employed as the primary data analysis method, involving processes such as initial coding, conceptual categorization, and the identification of key themes and patterns. Visual analysis of the images, focusing on elements such as color, form, composition, and spatial structure, revealed the role of painting in enhancing architectural aesthetics and shaping spatial identity. Finally, the findings were integrated with previous studies and the theoretical framework to present a comprehensive, multidimensional, and coherent understanding of the impact of painting in contemporary architecture. The statistical population of the study includes contemporary architectural projects from 2000 to 2025, and purposive sampling was applied.
Findings: Painting, as a branch of visual arts, has long interacted with architecture and has gained an interdisciplinary role in contemporary Iranian architecture that goes beyond mere decoration. The present study aims to examine the role of painting in shaping spatial identity, enhancing visual experience, and conveying cultural–symbolic narratives in contemporary Iranian architecture. The main hypothesis of the research is that painting, through the conscious use of color, form, and cultural motifs, can act as a decisive factor in enriching spatial quality, strengthening users’ sense of belonging, and preserving cultural identity. Accordingly, three significant contemporary architectural case studies—Vartan House, the Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, and the Nima Yushij House Museum—were selected for analysis. The findings indicate that painting performs distinct yet meaningful roles in each project. In Vartan House, mural paintings inspired by Iranian–Islamic and Armenian traditional motifs function as structural and identity-forming elements, reinforcing the connection between modern architecture and local culture. In the Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, paintings interact directly with architectural form, lighting, and spatial organization, playing a crucial role in enhancing visual and functional experience. In the Nima Yushij House Museum, paintings serve as tools of cultural and poetic narration, contributing to the transmission of historical memory and literary identity. Data analysis led to the identification of three main conceptual themes: cultural and spatial identity formation, integration of art and architecture to enhance visual and spatial experience, and artistic and symbolic storytelling in architectural spaces. Overall, the results demonstrate that painting in contemporary Iranian architecture is not merely an aesthetic element, but an active component in producing meaning, identity, and human experience within architectural spaces.
Conclusion:  The analysis of the research themes and sub-themes demonstrates that painting, as an interdisciplinary element, plays a multidimensional and essential role in contemporary architecture. Beyond its decorative function, painting acts as a structural and meaningful component in spatial formation, contributing to the reproduction of cultural identity, the enhancement of spatial experience, and the creation of artistic and symbolic narratives. Although the intensity and mode of manifestation of these themes vary across the case studies, all of them highlight the necessity of conscious attention to painting within the contemporary architectural design process.
In terms of spatial identity, painting contributes to the reinforcement and stabilization of cultural identity through the use of local, symbolic, and historical elements. Regarding spatial and visual experience, the synergy between painting and architecture enhances sensory perception, improves aesthetic quality, and generates deeper and more engaging spaces. Moreover, in the dimension of artistic storytelling, painting functions as a communicative medium through which cultural, social, and personal meanings are conveyed, transforming architectural space from a purely physical environment into a meaningful and interpretive setting. Overall, the findings support the main research hypothesis and indicate that the conscious integration of painting into architectural design can lead to the creation of spaces that simultaneously embody aesthetic, identity-based, and symbolic qualities. From this perspective, reconsidering the position of painting as an integral part of the architectural design process represents an essential requirement within contemporary architectural approaches.

Abstract Aims: Higher education plays a crucial role in preparing competent graduates, yet a significant gap remains between academic theoretical knowledge and the practical skills required in professional environments. This gap stems from traditional teaching methods, inflexible curricula, and ineffective knowledge transfer. One of the major challenges in higher education is the decline in students’ academic motivation a factor that directly influences academic achievement, reduces anxiety, enhances creativity, and improves overall performance. Many educational systems worldwide face student demotivation and its negative consequences, such as academic underachievement. The presence of students with similar abilities but different motivation levels highlights the importance of addressing motivational factors.In response to these challenges, modern approaches such as constructivism have emerged, emphasizing active learning and the central role of the learner. This approach strengthens intrinsic motivation by enhancing self-efficacy and fosters collaborative learning environments that reduce anxiety and stimulate creativity. Evidence shows that constructivist, active teaching methods create meaningful connections between educational content and students’ real needs, thereby enhancing both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Accordingly, the present study examines the effectiveness of constructivist instruction in improving academic motivation among architecture students.
Materials & Methods:  This applied study employed a quasi-experimental design with pre-test and post-test measurements across experimental and control groups. The statistical population consisted of first-semester undergraduate architecture students and first-semester associate architecture students at the National Girls’ Skills College in Sari, enrolled in the Perspective course during the 2023–2024 academic year. The control group included 15 associate students, while the experimental group consisted of 21 undergraduate students. The independent variable was the constructivist instructional model, delivered to the experimental group in twelve weekly sessions, each lasting three hours.The dependent variable, academic motivation, was assessed using Vallerand’s Academic Motivation Scale (1992), based on Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory. The scale includes 28 items measuring intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Higher scores indicate higher levels of each motivational dimension. The questionnaire was administered to both groups at the beginning and again at the end of the course. Constructivist teaching strategies were adapted to the study context and organized into three domains: objectives and content, instructional methods, and assessment. In terms of objectives and content, lesson plans were adjusted flexibly according to students’ levels, and assignments were personalized. Instructional methods included providing educational videos alongside in-class teaching, allowing students to review concepts outside the classroom. Assessment strategies involved continuous evaluation, periodic interim submissions, and a final exam. Since both groups shared identical classroom environments, physical learning conditions were not examined. This design enabled a clear comparison of the impact of constructivist instruction on students’ academic motivation.
Findings: All participants in this study were female architecture students at the National Girls’ Skills College in Sari, aged between 18 and 20. The experimental group consisted of 21 undergraduate architecture students, while the control group included 15 associate-level students. The age distribution in both groups showed that most participants were 18 years old. The results of academic motivation were examined across three dimensions: amotivation, intrinsic motivation, and extrinsic motivation, in both pre-test and post-test stages. Findings revealed that the mean score of amotivation in the experimental group decreased from 32.60±3.80 in the pre-test to 28.40±3.20 in the post-test, while the control group showed only a minimal reduction from 33.10±4.10 to 32.80±3.90. This notable decline demonstrates the effectiveness of the constructivist teaching model in reducing students’ amotivation. For intrinsic motivation, the experimental group showed an increase from 66.70±5.12 to 72.40±4.85, whereas the control group exhibited only a slight improvement. This indicates that constructivist instruction significantly enhanced students’ intrinsic motivation and their active engagement in learning. In the dimension of extrinsic motivation, the experimental group’s mean increased moderately from 58.20±4.95 to 62.10±4.30, while changes in the control group were negligible. Overall, the results confirm that constructivist teaching has a positive impact on reducing amotivation and enhancing intrinsic motivation among architecture students.
Conclusion: In contemporary society, social development is a key concern for policymakers, and one of its important indicators is academic achievement within educational systems. Motivation whether intrinsic or extrinsic plays a fundamental role in individuals’ success, as it drives purposeful effort, productivity, and effective planning. Educational approaches have a significant impact on strengthening students’ motivation, and among them, constructivist teaching is recognized as an effective method for enhancing academic motivation. This study aimed to investigate the effect of constructivist instruction on the academic motivation of architecture students. The findings revealed that this teaching method significantly increased intrinsic motivation and reduced amotivation among students. Although a positive effect was also observed on extrinsic motivation, its magnitude was smaller compared to intrinsic motivation. These results align with previous studies that highlight the importance of active, project-based, and collaborative learning environments in promoting academic motivation. Overall, the study suggests that constructivism by fostering interactive learning opportunities, personalizing content, and enhancing students’ self-efficacy can serve as an effective approach to addressing motivational challenges in higher education, particularly in practice-oriented fields such as architecture. It also underscores the need for educational policymakers to support the broader implementation of active teaching methods.

Abstract Extended Abstract
Aims: This study examines the relationship between humans and nature and its impact on spatial experience and mental well-being, highlighting historical Iranian gardens as exemplary models of intelligent human-nature interaction. Through geometric patterns, water flows, diverse vegetation, and spatial hierarchies, these gardens integrate aesthetic and climatic functions while shaping human experiences of space. Despite extensive research on Iranian garden design, few studies have systematically analyzed both nature-oriented and human-oriented components, particularly how direct, indirect, and spatial experiences of nature are reflected in garden layouts. Therefore, analyzing biophilic elements and reinterpreting the spatial pattern of the Shazdeh Mahan Garden with a focus on human experience is essential for advancing human and nature-centered landscape design in Iran.This research aims to explore traditional Iranian architectural capabilities in creating nature-oriented, human-centered spaces using the threefold Clarett model, through qualitative analysis of natural elements and spatial patterns, ultimately deriving strategies for contemporary design rooted in Iranian culture. The main research questions focus on identifying biophilic architectural elements in the garden and understanding how the three types of biophilic experiences direct, indirect, and spatial manifest in its layout.
Materials & Methods: This applied study aims to enhance the design quality of historical Iranian gardens, particularly the Shazdeh Mahan Garden, using a descriptive-analytical and mixed-methods (qualitative–quantitative) approach. Data were collected through literature review to identify theoretical concepts, a physical checklist to evaluate the garden’s structure, and five-point Likert questionnaires to assess perceptions of visitors and experts. Qualitative analysis involved content analysis and spatial-physical comparison to extract biophilic elements and understand their manifestation in the garden. Quantitative data from 30 visitors and 10 experts were analyzed to evaluate both user perceptions and expert assessments simultaneously. The questionnaire’s validity and reliability were ensured through expert review and Cronbach’s alpha. Data analysis included descriptive statistics and one-sample t-tests to examine the significance of biophilic elements. This integrated approach allows for alignment between spatial analysis and human perception, although limitations included the difficulty of quantifying subjective experiences, time constraints for field observations, and limited access to experts.
Findings: Shahzadeh Mahan Garden in Kerman is a prominent example of Iranian Qajar-era gardens, featuring a axial and hierarchical design, water flow from the Tigran qanat, and an organized arrangement of garden beds, pathways, and pools that create a multisensory experience of human-nature interaction. This study, using a combination of three data collection methods literature review, spatial-physical analysis, and questionnaires showed that biophilic architectural elements are widely present in the garden. Direct nature experiences, including flowing water, diverse vegetation, and natural light and shade, have the greatest psychological and sensory impact on visitors. Indirect nature experiences, through local materials, geometric patterns, and lighting, enhance visual harmony and the sense of nature. Human-centered spatial experiences, guided by spatial hierarchies, sight axes, and the central pavilion, facilitate purposeful movement and active interaction. The findings indicate that these three dimensions work synergistically, making Shahzadeh Mahan Garden a successful example of Iranian biophilic architecture, providing an integrated and rich experience of human-nature connection both physically and perceptually.
Conclusion: This study demonstrates that the Shazdeh Mahan Garden in Kerman Province is a remarkable example of Iranian biophilic architecture, where the three core dimensions of the Clarret model direct experience of nature, indirect experience of nature, and human-centered spatial experience coexist harmoniously, strengthening the interaction between humans and the natural environment. In the direct experience of nature, water features, diverse vegetation, and shading provide relaxation, focus, and a sense of connection to nature, experienced by users as sensory and tactile stimuli. In the indirect experience, geometric patterns, native materials, and natural lighting create a sense of spatial harmony and rhythm without the immediate presence of natural elements. The human-centered spatial experience, organized around main axes, rest points, and the central pavilion, guides movement and spatial perception. The integration of these three dimensions enhances users’ psychological, perceptual, and movement experiences, making Shazdeh Mahan Garden a unique model among Iranian gardens. The findings suggest that contemporary landscape and public space design in Iran can leverage these biophilic principles to create a cohesive, psychologically enriching, and human-centered experience for users.