Architectural Technologies Studies

Abstract Aims: Architectural design is a highly complex cognitive process that emerges from the interaction of environmental stimuli, individual experiences, and the functional dynamics of the human nervous system. The generation of innovative architectural solutions requires continuous interaction between divergent thinking, convergent thinking, and spatial visualization abilities. While numerous theoretical models have attempted to explain the nature of design thinking, the underlying neural mechanisms responsible for creativity and decision-making in architectural design remain insufficiently understood. Recent advances in cognitive neuroscience have provided new opportunities to explore the neural foundations of creativity through neuroimaging techniques and brain-network analyses. This study aims to investigate the relationship between brain cognitive networks and creativity in the architectural design process and to identify the neural systems involved in idea generation, evaluation, and spatial simulation. By integrating findings from neuroscience and architectural design research, the study seeks to develop a comprehensive conceptual framework that explains how creativity emerges through interactions among large-scale brain networks.
Materials & Methods: This study employed a systematic review methodology combined with conceptual modeling. Relevant literature published between 2020 and 2025 in the fields of cognitive neuroscience, neuroarchitecture, creativity research, and design cognition was reviewed and analyzed. Particular attention was given to studies utilizing electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate neural activity during creative thinking and design-related tasks. The selected studies were examined to identify recurring neural patterns associated with architectural creativity and design cognition. Findings from the reviewed literature were synthesized into an integrated conceptual model describing the interaction among major cognitive networks during different stages of the architectural design process. The analysis focused on the Default Mode Network (DMN), Executive Control Network (ECN), hippocampal spatial simulation systems, and other brain regions associated with memory retrieval, conceptual integration, and creative problem-solving.
Findings: The review revealed that architectural design creativity is not localized within a single brain region but rather emerges from the dynamic interaction of multiple large-scale neural networks. Three principal systems were consistently identified across the literature. The first is the Default Mode Network (DMN), which supports idea generation, imagination, memory retrieval, and divergent thinking. The second is the Executive Control Network (ECN), which is responsible for evaluating, refining, and selecting design alternatives through convergent thinking processes. The third is the spatial simulation system centered around the hippocampus, which enables designers to mentally construct, manipulate, and evaluate spatial configurations. Furthermore, the findings highlight the critical role of the Middle Temporal Gyrus (MTG) and hippocampal structures in generating innovative and contextually appropriate architectural concepts. Based on these findings, a five-stage architectural design model was developed, illustrating how creative outputs emerge through cyclical interactions among generation, evaluation, and simulation processes. The model suggests that successful architectural creativity depends on maintaining a balance between spontaneous idea production and analytical assessment while continuously engaging spatial cognitive mechanisms.
Conclusion: This study provides a neuroscience-based perspective on architectural creativity by demonstrating that design processes emerge from coordinated interactions among multiple cognitive networks rather than isolated mental functions. The proposed conceptual framework indicates that architectural design is fundamentally a cyclical system involving idea generation, evaluation, and spatial simulation, all supported by interconnected neural structures. The findings contribute to bridging the gap between traditional design theories and contemporary cognitive neuroscience by offering a biologically grounded explanation of creative architectural thinking. Moreover, the study highlights the importance of the Default Mode Network, Executive Control Network, hippocampus, and Middle Temporal Gyrus in facilitating creative performance during design activities. These insights may support the development of neuroscience-informed design methodologies, evidence-based architectural education, and future research exploring the neural foundations of creativity. Ultimately, the integration of cognitive neuroscience and architecture provides new opportunities for understanding, enhancing, and teaching design creativity through scientifically informed approaches.

Abstract Aims: Reducing energy demand and improving energy management in buildings have become major concerns in contemporary architectural and environmental research. Since windows constitute one of the most critical components of the building envelope in terms of heat transfer, considerable attention has been directed toward developing advanced glazing technologies to enhance thermal performance and reduce energy consumption. Among these technologies, multi-glazed windows and phase change materials (PCMs) have emerged as promising solutions for improving building energy efficiency. Polymer-based PCMs, in particular, have attracted increasing interest because of their high thermal stability and solid-to-solid phase transition characteristics, making them suitable for thermal energy storage (TES) applications. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of phase change materials in optimizing the thermal performance of double- and triple-glazed window systems and to evaluate their effectiveness in reducing energy consumption under cold climatic conditions. The research focuses on a residential living room located in Tabriz, Iran, and seeks to identify the most efficient glazing configuration in terms of thermal energy management.
Materials & Methods: This study employed a simulation-based approach to assess the thermal performance of various glazing systems. A living room in a residential building located in the cold climate of Tabriz was selected as the case study. Several types of double- and triple-glazed windows with different inter-pane gas fillings were modeled and compared. In addition, polymer-based phase change materials were incorporated into selected glazing configurations to evaluate their contribution to thermal energy storage and indoor temperature regulation. Thermal simulations were conducted using an energy-analysis plugin within a digital building modeling environment. The window-to-wall ratio (WWR) was fixed at 0.6, while the material properties of the roof, walls, and floor were kept constant throughout all simulation scenarios to ensure reliable comparisons. The analyses focused on heat transfer behavior, energy demand, and the thermal efficiency of different glazing arrangements under winter climatic conditions. Comparative evaluations were then performed to determine the most effective combination of glazing layers, gas fillings, and PCM integration for minimizing energy consumption.
Findings: The simulation results indicate that both glazing configuration and material selection significantly influence the thermal performance of residential windows. The incorporation of phase change materials improved thermal energy storage capacity and contributed to more stable indoor thermal conditions. However, the results also revealed that increasing the number of glazing layers does not necessarily lead to a proportional increase in thermal resistance or energy savings. In several cases, double-glazed systems equipped with more efficient coatings and optimized gas fillings performed better than certain triple-glazed alternatives. The effectiveness of the glazing systems was found to depend not only on the number of panes but also on the overall thermal properties of the window assembly. PCM-enhanced glazing systems demonstrated improved energy management capabilities by reducing heat loss and moderating temperature fluctuations within the interior space. These findings highlight the importance of considering the combined effects of glazing technology, gas type, and thermal storage materials rather than relying solely on the number of glazing layers when designing energy-efficient window systems.
Conclusion: The findings of this research demonstrate that optimizing window performance requires a comprehensive evaluation of glazing characteristics rather than simply increasing the number of panes. Although triple-glazed windows are generally assumed to provide superior thermal insulation, the results show that certain double-glazed systems with advanced coatings and appropriate thermal properties can achieve comparable or even better energy performance. Furthermore, the integration of polymer-based phase change materials enhances the thermal behavior of glazing systems by increasing energy storage capacity and improving indoor thermal stability. Therefore, PCM-based glazing technologies represent a promising strategy for reducing energy consumption and improving thermal comfort in residential buildings located in cold climates. The study underscores the necessity of performance-based design approaches in selecting window systems and highlights the potential of phase change materials as an effective component of sustainable and energy-efficient building envelopes.

Abstract Aims: The middle-aged population in Iran is steadily increasing, and depression has emerged as one of the most prevalent psychological challenges affecting this age group. Previous studies have reported depression prevalence rates ranging from 25% to 50% among middle-aged adults. In recent years, biophilic architecture, which emphasizes the integration of natural elements into the built environment and strengthens the human–nature connection, has gained attention as a potential strategy for improving psychological well-being. Despite growing evidence regarding the positive effects of nature-based design on mental health, limited research has specifically investigated its influence on depressive symptoms among middle-aged residents in residential environments. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the relationship between biophilic architectural features and the reduction of depressive symptoms among middle-aged residents and to identify the most influential biophilic components contributing to mental well-being.
Materials & Methods: This applied study was conducted using a descriptive-survey design. The statistical population consisted of middle-aged residents aged 45–65 years living in the Javan and Rose residential complexes in Tehran, Iran. A purposive sample of 20 participants was selected, including 10 residents from each residential complex. Data collection was carried out using two instruments: the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) for assessing depressive symptoms and a researcher-developed biophilic architecture questionnaire consisting of 15 items rated on a five-point Likert scale. The questionnaire evaluated residents’ access to and perception of various biophilic design elements within their residential environment. Descriptive statistical techniques, including means, frequencies, tables, and graphical analyses, were employed to analyze the collected data and compare the two residential complexes.
Findings: The findings revealed a significant inverse relationship between access to biophilic architectural elements and the severity of depressive symptoms among middle-aged residents. The Javan Residential Complex demonstrated a higher average level of access to biophilic features (Mean = 3.34 out of 5) and a considerably lower average depression score (Mean = 17.2) compared with the Rose Residential Complex, which showed a lower mean biophilic score (Mean = 1.67 out of 5) and a substantially higher average depression score (Mean = 42.7). Among the examined biophilic components, “plants and green spaces” achieved the highest effectiveness in reducing depressive symptoms (Mean = 4.13), followed by “natural lighting” (Mean = 3.80). These findings suggest that residential environments characterized by greater exposure to natural elements provide more favorable psychological conditions and may contribute to reduced levels of depression among residents. The results further indicate that not all biophilic components contribute equally, with vegetation and daylight emerging as the most influential factors.
Conclusion: The results of this study support the growing body of evidence highlighting the positive role of biophilic architecture in promoting mental health and psychological well-being. The observed inverse relationship between biophilic design features and depressive symptoms suggests that integrating natural elements into residential environments can serve as an effective, non-pharmacological, and cost-efficient approach to reducing depression among middle-aged adults. In particular, the presence of green spaces and access to natural daylight appear to play critical roles in improving residents’ emotional well-being and reducing psychological distress. Therefore, architects, urban designers, and housing policymakers should prioritize these biophilic components when designing and renovating residential complexes. By incorporating nature-based design principles into residential environments, it may be possible to enhance quality of life, foster healthier living conditions, and contribute to the prevention and mitigation of depression among middle-aged populations.

Abstract Aims: Housing serves as the most fundamental living environment for humans, playing a decisive role in ensuring the physical, mental, and social health of residents. In recent years, the World Health Organization has published the WHO Housing and Health Guidelines (2018), providing a comprehensive framework to elucidate the relationship between housing quality and health outcomes. This document introduces housing not merely as a physical commodity but as a structural determinant within the public health system. The primary aim of this study is to extract the fundamental health concepts embedded in this guideline and reinterpret them in relation to architectural structure and principles. The core objective is to shift the discourse of health from the level of mere hygienic recommendations to the level of spatial organization logic, physical structure, environmental qualities, and the overall architectural design system. Materials & Methods: This research employs qualitative content analysis with a thematic approach to systematically extract core health-related concepts embedded in the World Health Organization’s Housing and Health Guidelines (2018). The guideline serves as the primary data source. Units of analysis include statements, paragraphs, and sections that directly or implicitly address the relationship between built environment quality and human health. The analysis encompasses the entire document, with a focus on topics such as indoor air quality, natural lighting, humidity, safety, crowding, access to open spaces, and spatial justice. The process was structured in four stages: open coding to identify initial concepts without architectural preconceptions; axial clustering to form major categories; reinterpretation of these categories in relation to architectural principles (spatial organization, environmental quality, climatic logic, physical safety, and spatial justice); and critical reflection to bridge policy language with design logic. Findings: Findings reveal that many of the key concepts articulated in the WHO guideline have deep roots in foundational architectural principles, including natural lighting, natural ventilation, spatial hierarchy, human scale, physical safety, and spatial justice. Over 80% of the health-related content in the document directly pertains to built environment decisions and physical attributes. Nevertheless, this intrinsic connection has not been systematically redefined or operationalized within the processes of architectural design and policy-making. The extracted concepts—such as indoor air quality, thermal comfort, crowding, structural safety, and equitable access to nature—demonstrate clear parallels with architectural strategies, yet remain largely confined to technical standards rather than integrated as core design drivers. Conclusion: The findings of this study suggest that the concept of “healthy housing” should be fundamentally re-evaluated and repositioned within contemporary architectural discourse. Rather than being understood solely as a set of hygienic standards, technical requirements, or environmental performance indicators, healthy housing should be recognized as a comprehensive and multidimensional design framework that informs both architectural theory and practice. Such a perspective emphasizes the integration of health-related principles into the core components of architectural design, including spatial organization, physical form, environmental quality, functionality, and design ideology.
By embedding considerations of physical, psychological, and social well-being into the design process, architecture can move beyond its traditional role of providing shelter and become an active contributor to public health promotion and disease prevention. This approach highlights the interconnected nature of the built environment and human health, demonstrating that architectural decisions can significantly influence residents’ quality of life, behavior, comfort, and overall well-being. Furthermore, the proposed reinterpretation helps bridge the longstanding divide between public health research and architectural theory, encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration and knowledge exchange. Ultimately, healthy housing should be viewed as an integrated design paradigm in which health is not an external outcome but a fundamental principle embedded within the spatial, social, and environmental foundations of residential architecture.

Abstract Aims: The educational environment and its architectural characteristics play a fundamental role in shaping students’ psychological experiences and academic performance. Among environmental factors, lighting conditions are considered one of the most influential elements affecting human behavior, mood, concentration, and mental well-being. Learning is often accompanied by stress, particularly during examination periods, and excessive stress can negatively affect students’ health, cognitive functioning, and academic achievement. Consequently, identifying environmental strategies that can mitigate stress in educational settings has become an important area of research within environmental psychology and educational design. This study aims to investigate the relationship between light intensity and students’ stress levels in educational environments. Specifically, it seeks to determine whether appropriate lighting conditions can contribute to stress reduction among students during examination sessions and provide evidence-based recommendations for the design of healthier educational spaces.
Materials & Methods: This research employed a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The theoretical foundations and research rationale were established through an extensive review of literature and library-based studies related to environmental psychology, educational environments, and lighting design. The empirical phase of the study focused on measuring students’ stress levels during examination sessions. Stress levels were assessed using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) questionnaire, a widely recognized psychological assessment instrument. Environmental light intensity was measured using a YK-10LX digital lux meter to ensure accurate quantification of lighting conditions within the educational setting. Data collection was conducted under real examination conditions to capture authentic stress responses. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS statistical software. Statistical procedures were applied to examine the relationship between measured light intensity and students’ reported stress levels and to determine the significance of this relationship.
Findings: The results of the study revealed a significant relationship between environmental light intensity and students’ stress levels. Variations in lighting conditions were associated with measurable differences in psychological responses during examination sessions. The findings indicate that light intensity can influence students’ emotional state and perceived stress, suggesting that lighting is not merely a functional requirement but also an important environmental factor affecting mental well-being. Appropriate lighting levels were associated with lower stress scores and improved psychological comfort, whereas inadequate lighting conditions were linked to elevated stress responses. These results support previous findings in environmental psychology that emphasize the importance of sensory and environmental factors in shaping human emotions and behaviors. The study demonstrates that lighting design can serve as a practical intervention for improving educational environments and promoting students’ psychological health.
Conclusion: The findings of this research confirm that light intensity is a significant environmental variable influencing stress levels among students in educational settings. By optimizing lighting conditions, educational institutions can create environments that support psychological well-being, reduce examination-related stress, and potentially enhance academic performance. The study highlights the importance of integrating evidence-based lighting strategies into the design and management of educational facilities. The results can assist educational administrators in improving examination environments and provide architects and designers with valuable insights for creating healthier and more supportive learning spaces. Ultimately, attention to lighting quality should be considered an essential component of educational design aimed at promoting students’ mental health, comfort, and overall learning experience.

Abstract Aims: Iranian gardens, particularly the Fin Garden of Kashan, embody a complex system of meaning formed through the interaction of natural elements, spatial structure, and the observer’s perceptual experience; nevertheless, the semiotic and signifying dimensions of these elements have rarely been examined in a systematic manner. Drawing upon Peircean semiotics, this study approaches the Fin Garden as a cultural–spatial text and seeks to elucidate the mechanisms of meaning production across different semiotic levels. The primary objective is to analyze the role of natural elements as carriers of meaning and to examine the relationships among signs within the observer’s perceptual experience. Accordingly, the research questions address the why of the meaningfulness of natural elements and the how of the formation and stabilization of meaning within the garden’s spatial system. Materials & Methods: This study adopts a qualitative research approach with a descriptive–analytical nature, grounded in Charles Sanders Peirce’s semiotic theory, and aims to elucidate the mechanisms of meaning production through the interaction between natural elements and the spatial organization of the Fin Garden of Kashan. Within this framework, the garden is conceptualized as an architectural–landscape text, whose constituent elements are interpreted through Peirce’s triadic semiotic system, comprising iconic, indexical, and symbolic signs. The research population encompasses all natural and physical elements that contribute to the garden’s semiotic structure and play a signifying role in its spatial organization and the perceptual experience of the observer, including water, vegetation, landform, spatial geometry, axial organization, pools, water channels, and the pavilion. Sampling is conducted using a purposive and theoretical strategy, focusing on elements that exhibit the highest semiotic capacity, a significant presence within the spatial structure, and a direct association with the symbolic concepts of the Persian garden, thereby enabling the achievement of conceptual saturation. Data are collected through documentary and library research, the examination of historical and theoretical sources, field observations, and the analysis of images, maps, and visual documents related to the Fin Garden of Kashan. The validity of the study is ensured through reliance on a well-established theoretical framework of Peircean semiotics and the triangulation of data sources (theoretical and conceptual validity), while reliability is reinforced by repeated data review, comparative interpretation across different semiotic levels, and the maintenance of logical coherence among findings. Data analysis is based on interpretive qualitative analysis and semiotic coding, conducted in several stages: first, the identification and description of spatial and natural elements; second, the extraction and coding of their meanings at the iconic, indexical, and symbolic levels; and finally, the analysis of interrelationships among signs and their organization within the garden’s spatial structure. This analytical process facilitates an in-depth understanding of how meaning is produced and stabilized in the perceptual experience of the observer and leads to the articulation of a coherent model of the semiotic system governing the Fin Garden of Kashan. Findings: The findings of the study indicate that the Fin Garden of Kashan is not merely a physical assemblage of natural and architectural elements, but rather a complex, purposeful, and multilayered semiotic system in which meaning is produced and stabilized through the structured interaction of natural elements, spatial organization, and the observer’s perceptual experience. Data analysis within the framework of Peircean semiotics reveals that the garden’s principal elements—particularly water, vegetation, landform, and the pavilion—operate simultaneously across the iconic, indexical, and symbolic levels, with meaning emerging through a gradual process that moves from sensory perception toward conceptual understanding. At the iconic level, the visual and sensory qualities of the elements establish the initial layer of engagement between the observer and space; at the indexical level, causal and experiential relationships evoke sensations such as movement, freshness, tranquility, and spatial orientation; and at the symbolic level, natural elements, in relation to their cultural–philosophical context, convey concepts such as life, order, and spirituality. The results further demonstrate the presence of a semiotic hierarchy within the garden, whereby water and the pavilion function as dominant signs, while other elements serve complementary and supportive roles. Meaning thus arises not from isolated elements, but from a network of inter-semiotic relationships that, through spatial synchronicity and the diachronic dynamics of natural change, transforms the Fin Garden into a living, dynamic, and readable text. Conclusion: The Fin Garden of Kashan can be understood not merely as a historical–physical artifact, but rather as a multilayered and dynamic semiotic system in which meaning is produced through the structured interaction of natural elements, spatial organization, and the perceptual experience of the observer. The findings indicate that the garden’s principal elements—most notably water, vegetation, and spatial geometry—operate simultaneously across the iconic, indexical, and symbolic levels, and that meaning emerges not as a fixed or static entity, but as a gradual process contingent upon the observer’s spatial perception. Comparison with previous studies reveals that, while the overall conclusions align with existing research emphasizing the symbolic and cultural dimensions of the Persian garden, the application of Peirce’s triadic semiotic framework enables a more systematic explanation of the mechanisms of meaning production and a rigorous analysis of inter-semiotic relationships, thereby conceptualizing the Fin Garden as a readable text structured by hierarchies of signification. Furthermore, the convergence of these findings with comparative semiotic studies of gardens in other cultural contexts suggests that, despite ideological and formal differences, garden spaces across cultures embody complex and multi-level semiotic structures. Accordingly, it is recommended that Peircean semiotics be employed as an analytical framework in future studies of Iranian gardens and, when integrated with phenomenological approaches and perceptual experience studies, provide a more nuanced understanding of the observer’s role in the reproduction of meaning. Such an approach holds both theoretical and practical potential for the design and reinterpretation of contemporary landscape spaces inspired by the Persian garden tradition.